Myanmar, officially the Union of Myanmar (pronounced [pjìdàunzṵ mjəmà nàinŋàndɔ ]) is the largest country by geographical area in mainland . On , Burma achieved independence from as the Union of Burma . Subsequent name changes were on , to the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma ; , to the Union of Burma and, since , the Union of Myanmar .

Also known as Burma or the Union of Burma by bodies and states which do not recognize the ruling military , it is bordered by the on the north, on the east, on the southeast, on the west, and on the northwest, with the to the south, and the to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930 km (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted .
The name "Myanmar" is derivative of the local short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw.

. This name was used as early as the , but its etymology remains unclear. It is also the official name of the residents or citizens of Myanmar (written without the final "r" when used as an adjective, as in "the Myanma people").

"Bamar" is more specifically the official name of a person from the majority ethnic group.
In 1989, the the version of its name from Burma to Myanmar, along with changes to the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former from Rangoon to . However, the official name of the country in the , Myanmar, did not change, though this is often rendered in English as Myanma.

The renaming proved to be politically controversial. Because the military junta was not legitimately elected, some governments have contended that it did not have the authority to officially change the name in English. This stance has also been adopted by most Burmese who oppose the military regime, but who do not necessarily dispute the semantics.

The English-speaking world has been slow in accepting the name change; usage of Burma is still common. Burmese remains the most commonly used adjective. Major news organisations such as the , , and as well as Western governments, including those of the and the , still officially refer to the country as Burma.

, , and use "Myanmar" as the country name and "Burmese" as the adjective.
The are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid 900s were dominant in southern Burma.
The arrived in the 1st century BC and established several city kingdoms which traded with and .

The most powerful Pyu kingdom was , which was subsequently abandoned in 656. The Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid 800s were invaded by the kingdom.
The , or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day sometime prior to the 800s.

By 849, they had established a powerful kingdom centered on . During the reign of (1044-1077), Burman influence expanded throughout much of present-day Myanmar. By the 1100s, large portions of continental were controlled by the Pagan Kingdom, commonly called the First Burmese Empire.

In the late 1200s, under invaded the Pagan Kingdom, but by 1364 the Burmans re-established their kingdom at , where Burmese culture entered a . However, in 1527, the pillaged Ava. Meanwhile, the Mon re-established themselves at , which became a major commercial and religious centre.

Burmans who had fled from Ava established the Toungoo Kingdom in 1531 at , under , who re-unified Burma and founded the Second Burmese Empire. Because of growing European influence in Southeast Asia, Toungoo Kingdom became a major trading centre. expanded the empire by conquering the states of , , and .

But internal rebellion and lack of resources to control the acquisitions led to the downfall of Toungoo Kingdom. , who had expelled Portuguese invaders, founded a new dynasty at Ava in 1613. Internal rebellion by the Mon aided by , led to the kingdom's downfall in 1752.

established the and founded the Third Burmese Empire in the 1700s. In 1767, King conquered which resulted in greatly enriching that of the Burmans.

The of , fearful of growing Burman power, invaded four times from 1766 to 1769 without success. Later monarchs lost control of Ayutthaya, but acquired Arakan and Tenasserim.
During the reign of King , in 1824, captured , adjacent to British territory in India, prompting war.

The was concluded by a , in Central Myanmar, in 1826. The coastal territories of (Arakan) and . In 1851, King Tharawaddy imprisoned some British officials after border skirmishes, which the British used as the pretext for the .

This time, the British annexed the remaining coastal provinces - , and . In 1885, Burmese tax collectors, acting for the King, found out that the Bombay-Burma Teak Company had been illegally logging teak and hiding them in hope of evading tax. The King, , slapped a fine on the company, which was seen by the as a opportunity to annex the rest of Burma.

In , the was waged, for a period of only two weeks. Thibaw Min and the Royal family were detained and exiled to , and finally . Burma became a province of by late November 1885, and was given as a New Year present to on .

On , Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the , led by , founded the The Thirty Comrades received training in .

During Burma became a major front in the . Initially the Japanese-led succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the Allies retaliated. By July 1945 they had retaken the country.

The Burmese fought for both sides in the war. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese also served in the British Burma Army in 1941-1942. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British control.

The Burma Rifles fought as part of the under General from 1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created which also fought for the Allies. Many other Burmese fought with the British .

The under the command of and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but rose up against the Japanese in 1945.
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.

On , the nation became an independent , named the Union of Burma, with as its first President and as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the . A was formed, consisting of a and a .

The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of and , and the , which had been administered separately by the .

In 1961, , then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secetary to the Prime Minister, was elected ; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.

Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young .
rule ended in 1962 with a military led by General , who ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the . In 1974, the funeral of led to bloody anti-government protests.

In 1988, the pushed the country to the brink of revolution. In response, staged a coup d'état. He formed the (SLORC).

In 1989, was declared after widespread protests. Plans for People's Assembly elections were finalised on .
In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years.

The , the party of , won 409 out of a total 489 seats, but the election results were voided by SLORC, which refused to step down. SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the in 1989. Led by since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups.

In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new through the National Convention, which began . In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the (SPDC).
On , Myanmar was admitted into the .

The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the , have been excluded, and little progress has been made. On , the military junta, which had moved the national capital from to a site near , officially named it , meaning "seat of kings".

In September of 2006, The U.S. led effort to include Burma on the Agenda finally passed allowing the U.

N.S.C.

to discuss officially how it will deal with the human rights situation in Burma. In November of 2006, the announced it will be seeking charges against Myanmar over the continuous forced labor of its citizens by the military at the .

List of capitals of Myanmar

• 1044-1287
• 1315-1364, 1760-1764
• 1364-1750, 1764-1782
• 1750-1753
• (Yangon) 1753-1760, 1937-2006
• 1782-1823, 1841-1857
• 1857-1861
• 1861-1886
• from 19 Feb 2006

[ ] Politics

Main articles on politics and government of Myanmar can be found at the .

The Union of Myanmar is a . Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the (NCGUB), a in December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy in Myanmar.

Sein Win, a first cousin of Aung San Suu Kyi, is the NCGUB's current prime minister. However, NCGUB has very few powers and has been outlawed in Myanmar. The current Head of State is , who holds the title of "Chairman of the .

" He holds all key powers, including the power to remove ministers and cabinet members, and makes major decisions in international politics. was until , during which he was replaced by , who has close ties to Than Shwe. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.

Major political parties in Myanmar are the and the , although their activities are heavily regulated by the regime. Many other parties, often representing the interests of ethnic minorities do exist. There is little tolerance for , and many parties have been outlawed.

The represents the military, and is supported by a mass organisation named the . According to several organisations, including and , the regime has a poor record. There is no independent in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated.

Internet access is through software-based filtering that limits the material citizens can access on-line, including most political opposition and pro-democracy web pages. , , and are common, and is not tolerated.
In 1988, the Burmese army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression.

On , the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as . However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently invalidated by the regime.

The , led by , won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule in Myanmar, winning the in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under .

Despite a direct appeal by to and pressure by , the Burmese military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons de jure. The junta faces increasing international isolation. Myanmar's situation was referred to the for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation.

In September 2006, 10 of the United Nations Security Council s 15 members voted to place Burma on the council's formal agenda.
ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Myanmar's government. It has formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack of democratisation in Myanmar.

Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers, in particular .
Myanmar's , particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Myanmar because of the military crackdown in 1988 and because of the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election.

Similarly, the has placed embargoes on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of . U.S.

and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies.

However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in extraction. The French oil company is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the 's sanctions on Myanmar.

Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A.

and its American partner with aid and implementation by the . Prior to its acquisition by , settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.

Myanmar's armed forces is known as the , which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the Armed Forces, the Navy, and the Air Force. Myanmar is in the world in its number of active troops.

The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held by . Although official figures for Burmese military spending are not available, the , in its annual rankings, ranked Myanmar in the top 15 military spenders in the world.
Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions.

Divisions ( ) are predominantly . States ( ), in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into , , and .

Major cities are divided into districts called townships.
Myanmar, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970 ), is the largest country in mainland , and the 40th-largest in the world (after ). It is somewhat smaller than the US state of and slightly larger than .

Myanmar is located between of and , and of to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with and of to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). Myanmar is bounded by and to the southeast.

Myanmar has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) contiguous coastline along the and to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter.

In the north, the mountains form the border with China.

, located in , at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar. Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the . The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the ,

, and the rivers. The Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 km (1,348 mi) long, flows into the . Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.

The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Much of Myanmar lies between the and the . Myanmar lies in the region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (197 in) annually.

Annual in the region is approximately 2,500 mm (98 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Myanmar, is less than 1,000 mm (39 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 C (70 F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32 C (90 F).

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and . Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country. Other trees indigenous to the region include , acacia, bamboo, , mangrove, coconut, .

In the highlands of the north, oak, pine, and various cover much of the land. The lands along the coast support all varieties of . In the Dry Zone, vegetation is much more sparse and stunted.

Typical animals, particularly tigers and leopards are common in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild buffaloes, wild boars, deer antelopes and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity, for use as work animals, particularly in the . Smaller are also numerous ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs.

The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including , peafowl, , crows, herons, and paddybirds. Among species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.

Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation. Myanmar s GDP grows only 2.9% annually -- the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion .

After a parliamentary government was formed in , Prime Minister attempted to make Burma a . His administration adopted the Two-Year Economic Development Plan, which was a failure. The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the , a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture.

In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralising economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy. Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated.

They have recently been exploited by foreign which have partnered with the government to gain access to Myanmar's natural resources.
Myanmar was designated a in 1987. Since 1992, when Than Shwe became head of state, the government has encouraged tourism.

However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the . In recent years, both and have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit.

Many nations, including the , , and the , have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from , , , , and .
Under British administration, Burma was one of the wealthiest countries in Southeast Asia.

It was once the world's largest exporter of . During British administration, Burma supplied through the . Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources.

It produced 75% of the world's , and had a highly literate population. The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.
Today, Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure.

Goods travel primarily across the Burmese- border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the . Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 1800s. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities.

Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in . Myanmar is also the world's second largest producer of , accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of , including . Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.

The major agricultural good is rice which covers about 60% of the country s total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the , 52 modern varieties were released in Myanmar between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996.

By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country s ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas .
The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.
Myanmar has a population of about 40 to 55 million.

Current population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983. No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Myanmar since the 1930s. There are over 600,000 registered from Myanmar in , and millions more work illegally.

Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers. Myanmar has a of 75 persons per km , one of the lowest in . Refugee camps exist along Indian-Burmese, Bangladeshi-Burmese and Burmese-Thai borders while several thousand are in .

Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being , , and .

Myanmar is ethnically diverse.

Although the government recognises , the actual number is much lower. The form an estimated 68% of the population. 10% of the population are .

The make up 7% of the population. The constitute 4% of the population. form approximately 3% of the population.

, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the . comprise 2% The remainder are , , , and other ethnic minorities.
Myanmar is home to four major linguistic families: , , , and .

Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include , , , , and . The primary Tai-Kadai language is .

is the major language spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages are , the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and .
According to the Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official as of 2000 was 89.

9%. Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. To qualify for status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.

6% to 18.7% in 1987. However, the U.

S. Department of State estimates that functional literacy is at 30%.
is predominantly of the sect intermingled with local beliefs.

According to the military government, it is practised by 89% of the population, especially among the Bamar, Rakhine, Shan, Mon, and Chinese. is practised by 6% of the population, primarily among the Kachin, Chin and Kayin, and because of missionary work in their respective areas. About four-fifths of the country's Christians are , in particular of the ; make up the remainder.

Four percent of the population practises , mainly of the sect. Muslims are divided amongst , Indo-Burmese, , , , and . The Muslim and Christian populations are socially marginalised and are widely segregated.

Small segments of the population practise .
Although a diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the majority culture is primarily Buddhist and . Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries.

This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of . Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the , an adaptation of , has been influenced greatly by , , and versions of the play.

Buddhism is practised along with which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.
In a traditional Burmese village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people.

A novitiation ceremony called is the most important events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time. Every boys of Buddhist family need to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. It is compulsory for every boys of Buddhism.

The duration can be at least one week. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies ( ) at the same time. Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.

Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.
British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of the .

Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as . Many ethnic minorities, particularly the in the southeast, and the and who populate the north and northwest, practice .

, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is linguistically related to and to the . It is written in a consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which comes from the . The Burmese alphabet adapted the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 700s.

The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 1000s. The script is also used to write , the sacred language of . The Burmese script is also used to write several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and for each language.

The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of and is age-oriented. Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in .

and take place at government schools.
Burmese cuisine has been influenced by , , , and other ethnic cuisines. The staple of Burmese cuisine is rice.

and are also eaten. Burmese cuisine often utilises , and , , and . , which is considered meat, is rarely eaten.

Curries, such as and are also used. , widely considered Myanmar's national dish, consists of curried broth with chickpea flower, and . Tropical fruits are often served as desserts.

Major cities offer a wider variety of cuisines, including , , and .
Traditional is but without . Musical instruments include a called pat waing, a circle called kyi waing, a bamboo called pattala, , such as the hnè or and , clappers, and , which are often assembled in an called saing waing.

The , a boat-shaped string instrument consisting of and decorated along its neck has long been associated with the Burmese culture. Since the 1950s, westernised music has gained popularity, especially in large cities.

[ ] Notes